Buddhism: An Essential Guide to Understanding Asian Culture and History

In order to understand Western history and culture more easily and accurately, what you absolutely must know is ‘Greek and Roman mythology’ and ‘Christianity.’
Knowing Greek and Roman mythology makes it easier to understand Western art in general, such as painting and sculpture, and how the Reformation, an event that occurred within Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuries, led to social and political changes in Europe.
In this way, if the ideas that must be known to study history in the West are Greco-Roman mythology and Christianity, then in Asia it is Buddhism.

Buddhism, which originated in India, a region of Asia, about 2,600 years ago, is considered one of many religions today, but in Asia, especially in China and Korea, it was not simply a 'religion' but an ideology.
Especially in the case of Korea, the introduction and recognition of Buddhism meant exchange with China, which was the cultural center of East Asia.
So, by accepting Buddhism, the country's system was reorganized and developed, and by building temples, pagodas, and Buddhist paintings, architectural styles and art were developed.
So, Buddhism was able to remain as the ‘dominant ideology’ until the Joseon Dynasty, when Neo-Confucianism became the mainstream ideology in East Asia.
Therefore, in order to understand our history and culture more easily and accurately, we must understand the development and transformation of Buddhism.
In addition, understanding the development and transformation of Buddhism, from China, which introduced Buddhism to Korea, to India, the origin of Buddhism, can be said to provide a foundation for understanding Korean history and, by extension, East Asian history.

Personal computers have limited storage capacity, but when you access the Internet through Explorer, you encounter infinity beyond finiteness.
In Brahmanism, this is called the union of Atman (我) and Brahman (梵), or 'Brahma-Il-Yeo (梵我一如).
When the individual Atman and the creator Brahman become one, Atman, which is bound to change and finiteness, is reborn into infinite and unchanging freedom.
This is liberation from bondage, and its object is the endlessly turning wheel of repetition, that is, reincarnation.
This is the conclusion of the religion and philosophy of the Upanishads.
However, this logic requires the premise of ‘God as Creator.’
Ultimately, if the existence of God cannot be proven, then this argument is flawed and the entire logical structure collapses.
In fact, the existence of God has been accepted through faith and belief since time immemorial, but it cannot be proven.
That is why the problem cannot be avoided.
From this perspective, Buddhism rules out the existence of an unverifiable god.
In that case, neither Atman, Brahman, nor the structure of the Oneness of the Self can be established.
The alternative presented is An-Atman, the 'changing entity'.
And when we realize this change, I believe that humans will attain complete freedom like the wind.
In the end, there is a fundamental difference between the liberation that Buddhism speaks of and the liberation that Brahmanism speaks of.
- 003.
Differences between Brahmanism and Buddhism on reincarnation and liberation (pp. 30-31)

It appears that Mahakasyapa came to dominate the religious order because the monks from Rajagaha who followed Sariputra and Maudgalyayana tacitly supported Mahakasyapa, who was also from the vicinity of Rajagaha.
In fact, in Volume 32 of the 『Mākassāṇāṇā Vinaya』, it is recorded that when Mahakassapa led the first council to organize the Buddha's teachings, he placed the Buddha's seat in the center and symbolically placed the seats of Sariputra and Maudgalyayana on either side of it.
This means that Mahakasyapa became the leader of the Buddhist sect by embracing the supporters of Sariputra and Maudgalyayana.
- 015.
Buddha's Nirvana and the Triumph of Rigorism (pp. 87-88)

The establishment and development of sectarian Buddhism signifies competition within Buddhism.
Because of this, Buddhism becomes increasingly detailed and difficult.
It will be easy to understand if you think about how, as Buddhist studies develop, they focus on increasingly smaller conceptual differences, and these become the mainstream of the discipline.
As sectarian Buddhism continued to develop, monks became increasingly isolated from the lives of the common people.
At this time, some people began to advocate religious reform, pointing out that the reason Buddha began to spread the Dharma after attaining enlightenment was to educate the people.
The Mahayana Buddhist movement was started by them.
- 020.
Buddhism Re-divides into Twenty Sects (p. 116)

The 'An' of An Shigao, a monk who translated the scriptures in the early days of Chinese Buddhism, refers to the country of Anshi, or Parthia.
Ansego is a monk named Sego from Anshikguk.
Another early monk, Jiru Gacam, was from the Yuezhi Kingdom, the Kushan Kingdom.
In addition, there are also Kang Mengxiang and Kang Seunghoe, who were from Kangju State in present-day East Turkestan.
And the monk from India indicated it by inserting the character 'chuk' from India.
Examples of this include the Chukbeopran and Chuksakbul.
Also, sometimes, the character ‘Buddha’ was added, such as in ‘Buddha Dojeong’.
Looking at it this way, we can also see that there has been a Chinese cultural judgment on Buddhism in China since the beginning.
- 036.
The Entry of Foreign Monks and the Translation of Sutras (pp. 192-193)

The period during which Beop-gwa was a Taoist monk was from 396 to 398, and in Volume 114 of the Book of Wei, “Stone Record,” there is a record of some surprising words that Beop-gwa said during this period.
That is, “Taejo is a monarch who loves Buddhism, so the emperor is the current Buddha.
Therefore, the passage says, “The monks must be respectful.”
Besides, “He who extends the way to the people is a monarch.
There is also a line that says, “I do not bow to the emperor, but to Buddha.”
This is quite a contrast when we consider that at a slightly later time in Gangnam, Hye-won was developing the 『Samunbulgyeong Prince Theory』.
Buddhism in Gangbuk, like Gangnam, gave up on operating an independent religious order and chose the safe path of being subordinate to the government and receiving protection.
- 040.
Gangbuk Buddhism, where the emperor and Buddha are identified (p. 220)

Samgyegyo became explosively popular during the war as a religious community based on self-sacrifice.
However, after the establishment of the Su?dang unified empire, these relief activities became targets of suppression due to the risk of inciting resentment against the state system.
Furthermore, the criticism that the teachings of all sects except Samgyegyo are wrong has also caused a backlash within Chinese Buddhism.
Eventually, as the party entered its mid-term, the Samgyegyo completely disappeared.
Even during China's Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, there was Mohism, which competed with Confucianism.
Mohism also took action for the poor and the collective rather than for individuals.
As a result, it was popular enough to put pressure on Confucianism during the turbulent Warring States period, but it disappeared under state oppression during the unified empire of the Qin and Han dynasties.
Today, religious relief activities are encouraged by the state, but in dynastic societies, they were easily perceived as actions that threatened the ruling class.
Looking at it this way, we can say that the Samgyegyo is a Buddhist re-emergence of the problems and demands experienced by the Chinese people during the chaotic period of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.
- 047.
Chinese Buddhism Approaching the People (pp. 264-265)

Both Brahmanism and Hinduism in India are secular religions.
That's why rites of passage have developed.
Confucianism also has highly developed rites of passage from the perspective of etiquette.
This can be confirmed through the Book of Rites in the Five Classics and the Book of Rites in Neo-Confucianism.
The fact that Buddhism does not have its own rites of passage means that Confucian values ​​continued to be utilized in relation to rites of passage even during the Buddhist era.
In other words, Confucianism continued to maintain a relationship with the people through rites of passage.
This becomes the basic background for the revival of Confucianism when Buddhism weakens.
- 055.
The Embryos of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism's Response (p. 304)

In a situation where Chinese Buddhism is no longer able to create new trends and is stagnant, the fact that its energy has shifted to Neo-Confucianism means two things.
First, there was a lack of driving energy within Chinese Buddhism, and second, as Yangmingism replaced Zen Buddhism, it became difficult for Zen Buddhism to develop.
This can be said to virtually mean the 'end of East Asian Buddhism.'
In reality, the four great monks of the late Ming Dynasty were not figures who promoted new energy, but rather figures who comprehensively rejected existing values.
At that time, Chinese Buddhism was too weak to lead changes that suited the times and enlighten society.
- 062.
Buddhism in Confucian Clothing (p. 348)

However, according to Volume 4 of the Samguk Sagi, “Silla Annals,” etc., King Jinpyeong’s name was Baekjeong (白淨) and his wife was Lady Maya.
Baekjeong is another name for Jeongban, the father of Sakyamuni.
In other words, the names of King Jinpyeong and his wife are the same as those of King Jeongpan and Queen Maya, the parents of Sakyamuni.
In addition, according to the “Nine-story Wooden Pagoda of Hwangryongsa Temple” in Volume 3 of the “Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms,” the Silla royal family was recorded to be of the same Indian Chaljeli tribe as Sakyamuni, that is, the Kshatriya class.
This can be understood as an attempt to secure Buddhist legitimacy and legitimacy by placing the Buddhistization of the Silla royal family in a relationship with Buddha, in the same context as the theory of the divine right of kings.
By borrowing the name of the Silla royal family and associating the Silla royal family with the Kshatriya, the highest caste that ruled India along with the Brahmans, Silla attempted to stabilize its royal authority and promote national development.
The idea that the royal family of Silla is the clan of Shakyamuni is called the ‘Shakyamuni True Seed Theory’.
- 068.
The country ruled by King Sudhana and Queen Maya (pp. 380-381)

Because China has traditionally been an agricultural culture, sowing in spring and harvesting in autumn are important.
I valued it.
Therefore, the aspect representing the flow of time, namely the Spring and Autumn Period, came to mean history, and the age of humans also came to be called the Spring and Autumn Period.
In other words, 'Spring and Autumn Annals' is used to mean both the history of a nation and the history of an individual.
In addition, the Spring and Autumn Annals is one of the Five Classics (五經) along with the Book of Songs, the Book of Documents, the Book of Changes (I Ching), and the Book of Rites.
This representative Confucian classic appears under the name of Kim Chun-chu.
As mentioned earlier, Kim Chun-chu's uncle's name was Yongsu, a very Buddhist name meaning Yongsu Bodhisattva, the founder of the Indian Madhyamaka school.
However, the Spring and Autumn Annals, one generation later, differ greatly in that they are entirely Confucian names.
Through this, we can speculate that the development of Buddhism during the reigns of King Jinpyeong and Queen Seondeok may have actually led to some opposition to Buddhism.
- 072.
The Rise of Kim Chun-chu and the Rising of Buddhism (pp. 400-401)

Of course, within Buddhism, there was a conflict between the aristocratic sect that was the forerunner and the commoner Seon sect that came later.
It was natural that Wang Geon, the founder of the new dynasty, would be drawn to Seon Buddhism, which advocated human equality, saying that "anyone can become Buddha if they just enlighten their mind."
This is because, just as in Zen Buddhism, one can become a Buddha by enlightening one's mind, it can be argued that Wang Geon, who was not a member of the royal family, became a founding monarch through great effort.
In other words, Seon Buddhism provided an ideology that was advantageous for establishing Wang Geon's legitimacy as a monarch.
- 084.
Goryeo, the country that adopted Buddhism as its state religion (p. 472)

The fact that Buddhism, despite being suppressed by government policy during the Joseon Dynasty, remains Korea's representative religion to this day shows that the decline of Buddhism during this period was not solely due to state suppression.
In other words, in addition to external shocks, there were also internal factors within Buddhism that contributed to the decline of Buddhism at that time.
The biggest reason for this is that Buddhism was isolated from the people.
From the Three Kingdoms period when Buddhism was introduced to the Goryeo Dynasty, Buddhism was protected by the economic support of kings and nobles.
As this situation continued for over a thousand years, Buddhism became increasingly alienated from the people.
If Buddhism had enjoyed the firm support of the people at the time, it would have been difficult for the rulers to control Buddhism.
- 091.
Consolidation of Buddhist Orders and Reduction of the Number of Temples (p. 516)

The Seunggun's participation in the Imjin War then unfolded in a completely unexpected direction.
Because Japan was a country with strong Buddhism, it did not destroy temples relatively often when the Buddhist army did not participate in the war.
However, as the victorious army emerged as a powerful enemy, indiscriminate destruction of temples began.
Also, after the Imjin War, the Joseon Dynasty government used monks to build and manage Namhansanseong and Bukhansanseong.
In addition, the fighting ability of the monks demonstrated during the war led the Joseon government to conclude that the monks could be dangerous.
As a result, monks were indiscriminately mobilized for forced labor related to national reconstruction as a way to weaken their power.
In other words, the victorious army fought for Joseon, but Joseon remained a country of Neo-Confucianism even after that.
- 096.
Buddhism Burning in the Nation's Crisis (p. 540)

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