introduction

Chapter 1: Citizenship in Ancient Greece

1.
The Birth of Citizenship
1) Sparta 2) Athens
2.
thinkers
1) Plato 2) Aristotle

Chapter 2: Hellenistic and Roman Citizenship

1.
Hellenistic period
2.
Ancient Rome
1) From the founding of ancient Rome to the Republic period
2) From the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire
3.
thinkers
1) Cicero 2) Marcus Aurelius

Chapter 3: Citizenship in the Transition from Rome to the Middle Ages

1.
Christianity and Citizenship
2.
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire and Its Aftermath
3.
thinkers
1) Johannes Chrysostom 2) Augustine

Chapter 4: Citizenship in the Middle Ages

1.
migration of peoples
2.
Frankish Kingdom period
3.
The Decline of the City and the Florence Theses
4.
Urban development and the commune movement
5.
Citizenship of major regions
6.
Development of law
7.
thinkers
1) John Salisbury 2) Thomas Aquinas
3) Marsilius 4) Azo and Bartolus

Chapter 5: Citizenship in the Renaissance

1.
Renaissance and Citizenship
2.
Florence and civic humanism
3.
thinkers
1) Leonardo Bruni 2) Machiavelli 3) Guicciardini

Chapter 6: Modern Citizenship (1)

1.
The emergence of absolute monarchy
2.
The French Wars of Religion and Bodin
1) Huguenot Wars 2) Bodin
3.
The English Civil War and Hobbes
1) Civil War and the Putney Debate 2) Hobbes
4.
The Glorious Revolution and Locke
1) Glorious Revolution 2) Locke

Chapter 7: Modern Citizenship (2)

1.
Natural Law and Citizenship
2.
Montesquieu and Citizenship
3.
Rousseau and Citizenship
4.
The American Revolution and Civil Rights
5.
The French Revolution and Civil Rights

Chapter 8: Modern Citizenship (3)

1.
Citizenship issues in the 19th century
2.
thinkers
1) Hegel: State and Civil Society
2) Tocqueville: Democracy in America
3) John Stuart Mill: Liberty and Civil Society
4) Marx: Civil Society and Class
5) Socialists after Marx

Chapter 9: Citizenship Issues Since the 20th Century

1.
The rise of social rights
2.
Citizenship in the Soviet era
3.
European integration movement and citizenship
4.
World Citizenship Movement

conclusion
References
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The discussion surrounding citizenship is ultimately related to the question, 'What is a nation?'

The fundamental question the author raises in the book, illuminating the development of citizenship from ancient times, is:
First, who were citizens when citizenship was established in ancient Greece and Rome? Second, since the concept of citizenship in the ancient sense disappeared in the early Middle Ages, what differences did medieval citizenship have with ancient citizenship? Third, how was modern citizenship established, and how did it acquire universal meaning? Fourth, how does the concept of citizenship relate to globalization in the 20th century, and what topics are being discussed? These questions lead to the fundamental question of how to understand the expansion of citizenship and the prospects for its future development.
The debate surrounding citizenship is ultimately an extension of the question, "What is a nation?"
The main interest of the thinkers covered in this book, including Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Hegel, Tocqueville, and Marx, was also in the theory of the state.


How do we define 'citizen' today?

The history of the debate surrounding citizens and citizenship, citizenship and nationality, is deep-rooted.
According to the author, the topic of citizenship has been a subject of heated debate since the late 20th century.
That is, it is related to the so-called 'end of history' that occurred with the collapse of the socialist bloc around 1990. As efforts to build a state based on ideology were frustrated after the Russian Revolution of 1917, the question of what a state is and what it should be was raised, and at the core of this question was the concept of citizenship.
Habermas summarized the issues surrounding citizenship in the contemporary context into three: the future of the nation-state, the relationship between the nation-state and democracy following the launch of the European Union and the European Single Market, and the conflict between the universal principles of constitutional democracy and the special circumstances of maintaining a community society due to the influx of large-scale immigration.
The questions Habermas raised over 30 years ago are even more acute today.
However, the question of citizenship was not first raised in the 20th century; it has had a lasting significance ever since mankind began organizing nations and urban communities.

What is citizenship, and why does the difference between citizenship and nationality matter?

Many people have heard of citizenship.
Few people know the difference between citizenship and nationality.
The author argues that it is no exaggeration to say that the fundamental reason the United States has become a superpower and has come to dominate world history today lies in its citizenship system.
The institution of citizenship originated in ancient Greece, played a crucial role in the expansion of Rome, and formed the foundation of the autonomous cities of the Middle Ages and modern Europe and the United States.
Citizenship not only means the legal rights of a citizen of a country, but is also a core means of internal sovereignty.
Most countries in the world, including our country, have adopted a nationality system, but some countries, such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, use the term citizenship.
The reason why these countries use the term citizenship instead of nationality is because of a complex historical background.
Meanwhile, the word "citizenship" carries with it many potential for misunderstanding.
This word is a translation of the English word 'citizenship', but strictly speaking, citizenship and 'citizenship' are not the same.
The Chinese character word citizenship (市民權) refers to the rights one has as a citizen, but 'citizenship' encompasses not only the rights and status of a citizen, but also the qualities and conditions.

The Four Concentric Circles Model: Understanding the Expansion of Citizenship

The author introduces the 'Four Concentric Circles Model' as a conceptual tool to most effectively understand citizenship.
Michel Troper, in explaining the French Revolution, divided the French population into four concentric circles.
The outermost circle contains all residents, while the next circle contains most men, women, and minors born to French parents.
The third circle includes the active citizens who pay property taxes and have the right to vote, which is granted to adult males over a certain age, and finally, the smallest circle is made up of the few people who are eligible to be elected.
According to the author, Tropper's argument can be applied not only to the French Revolution but also to understanding the expansion of citizenship throughout history.


For example, in most countries belonging to the Western intellectual tradition in the early 20th century, citizens and people were identified, class distinctions within the state were abolished, and boundaries based on gender and race disappeared.
To use the analogy of concentric circles, in the case of ancient Greece, the small central circle containing the citizens expanded outward, eventually erasing all boundaries between the concentric circles.
In the first half of the 20th century, when citizenship became universal, a fundamental change occurred in the nature of citizenship.
If before, citizenship could be explained with concentric circles, now the concentric circles have become a single circle, capable of containing all the citizens of each country.
Of course, the controversy surrounding citizenship has not disappeared.
Now that the relationships between the circles of the peoples of each country are gaining attention, a movement has emerged toward a single, grand circle encompassing all the circles.
That is, it is a movement toward regional citizenship that transcends the citizenship of individual countries, and toward global citizenship.


The author argues that, given the growing problems of immigration and the increasing nationalism of individual nations, the realistic possibility of individual nations' citizenships, existing as separate circles in the world we live in in the first half of the 21st century, being integrated into one large circle is unlikely.