CHAPTER 1
Study of Body Function 1
1.1 Introduction to Physiology 2
Scientific Method 2
1.2 Homeostasis and Feedback Control 4
History of Physiology 4
Voice feedback loop 4
Positive feedback 6
Neurological and Endocrine Regulation 6
Feedback control of hormone secretion 7
1.3 Key Organizations 7
Muscle tissue 8
Nervous tissue 9
Epithelial tissue 9
Connective tissue 13
1.4 Organs and Organ Systems 15
Skin 15
Organ system 17
Fluid compartment 17
Summary 18
Problem 18

CHAPTER 2
Body Chemical Composition 19
2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Chemical Bonds 20
Atom 20
Chemical Bonds, Molecules, and Ionic Compounds 21
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale 23
Organic Molecule 25
2.2 Carbohydrates and Lipids 27
Carbohydrates 27
Lipid 30
2.3 Protein 34
Protein Structure 34
Protein Function 37
2.4 Nucleic Acids 37
DNA 38
RNA 39
Summary 40
Problem 40

CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure and Gene Regulation 41
3.1 Structures related to the plasma membrane 42
Structure of the plasma membrane 42
Predation 45
Intracellular uptake 45
Exocytosis 45
Cilia and flagella 46
Microvilli 47
3.2 Cytoplasm and Organelles 47
Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton 47
Lysosome 48
Peroxisome 49
Mitochondria 49
Ribosome 50
Endoplasmic reticulum 50
Golgi apparatus 51
3.3 Cell Nucleus and Gene Expression 52
Genome and Proteome 53
Chromatin 53
RNA synthesis 54
RNA interference 57
3.4 Protein Synthesis and Secretion 58
tRNA 59
Polypeptide Synthesis 59
Functions of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus 60
Protein Decomposition 61
3.5 DNA Synthesis and Cell Division 62
DNA Replication 62
Cell cycle 62
Mitosis 65
Meiosis 68
Epigenetics 70
Summary 71
Problem 71

CHAPTER 4
Enzymes and Energy 73
4.1 Enzymes as Catalysts 74
Mechanism of Enzyme Action 75
Enzyme Naming 76
4.2 Control of enzyme activity 76
Temperature and pH effects 76
Cofactors and coenzymes 77
Enzyme activation 78
Substrate Concentration and Reversible Reaction 78
Metabolic pathway 79
4.3 Bioenergetics 81
Free energy increasing and decreasing reactions 82
Coupled reaction: ATP 82
Coupled Reactions: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 83
Summary 86
Problem 86

CHAPTER 5
Cellular Respiration and Metabolism 87
5.1 The corresponding action and the lactic acid pathway 88
Action 89
Lactic acid pathway 90
5.2 Aerobic Respiration 91
Citric acid cycle 92
Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation 92
Coupling of Electron Transport and ATP Production 92
ATP Balance Sheet 95
5.3 Interconversion of glucose, lactate, and glycogen 97
Glycogen Synthesis and Glycogenolysis 97
Corey Circuit 98
5.4 Lipid and Protein Metabolism 98
Lipid metabolism 98
Amino Acid Metabolism 101
Use of other energy sources 103
Summary 104
Problem 104

CHAPTER 6
Interactions between cells and their extracellular environment 105
6.1 Extracellular Environment 106
Body fluid 106
Extracellular matrix 106
Plasma membrane transport 107
6.2 Diffusion and Osmosis 108
Diffusion through the plasma membrane 109
Diffusion speed 110
Osmosis 110
Regulation of blood osmolarity 114
6.3 Carrier-Mediated Transport 115
Promotion of Diffusion 115
Active transport 117
Group transport 120
6.4 Membrane potential 121
Equilibrium potential 122
Resting membrane potential 123
6.5 Cell Signaling 125
Secondary Signal Transmitter 125
G-protein 126
Summary 128
Problem 128

CHAPTER 7
Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses 129
7.1 Neurons and Supporting Cells 130
Neuron 130
Classification of Neurons and Neurons 131
neuroglia 133
Nerve sheath and myelin sheath 134
Astrocyte Function 137
7.2 Electrical Activity of Axons 139
Ion gates of axons 140
Action potential 140
Conduction of nerve impulses 144
7.3 Synapse 146
Electrical Synapses: Gap Junctions 147
Chemical Synapse 147
7.4 Acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter 150
Chemically Modulated Channel 151
Acetylcholinesterase 154
Acetylcholine 154 in the peripheral nervous system
Acetylcholine 154 in the central nervous system
7.5 Monoamines as Neurotransmitters 156
Serotonin as a Neurotransmitter 157
Dopamine as a Neurotransmitter 158
Norepinephrine as a Neurotransmitter 159
7.6 Other Neurotransmitters 159
Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters 159
Polypeptide 160 as a neurotransmitter
Endocannabinoids as Neurotransmitters 162
Gases as Neurotransmitters 162
ATP and Adenosine as Neurotransmitters 163
7.7 Synaptic Integration 163
Synaptic plasticity 164
Synaptic inhibition 164
Summary 166
Problem 166

CHAPTER 8
Central Nervous System 167
8.1 Structural organization of the brain 168
8.2 Cerebrum 170
Cerebral cortex 171
Basal ganglia 175
Cerebral lateralization 177
Language 178
The Limbic System and Emotions 179
Memory 180
Emotions and Memory 184
8.3 The Nervous System 185
Awards and Awards Ceremony 186
Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 187
8.4 Midbrain and Lembrane 188
Midbrain 188
Marumbrain 190
Reticular Activation System 191 in Sleep and Wakefulness
8.5 Spinal Cord 192
192 Sanghaeng-ro
Downhill Road 192
8.6 Cranial and Spinal Nerves 195
Cranial Nerve 195
Spinal nerve 195
Summary 198
Problem 198

CHAPTER 9
Autonomic Nervous System 199
9.1 Neural control of involuntary effectors 200
200 autonomic nerve cells
Visceral effector organ 201
9.2 Division of the Autonomic Nervous System 201
Sympathetic nervous system 201
Parasympathetic nervous system 204
9.3 Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System 206
Adrenergic and cholinergic synaptic transmission 207
Response to adrenergic stimulation 209
Response to cholinergic stimulation 211
Other Autonomic Neurotransmitters 212
Organ 213 under dual innervation
Organ 214 without dual innervation
Control of the Autonomic Nervous System by Higher Brain Centers 215
Summary 216
Problem 216

CHAPTER 10
Sensory Physiology 217
10.1 Characteristics of Sensory Receptors 218
Classification of Sensory Receptors 218
The Law of Special Neural Energy 219
Generator (receptor) potential 220
10.2 Skin sensation 220
Somatosensory neural pathways 222
Clarity of the sensory area and senses 223
Lateral inhibition 224
10.3 Taste and Smell 224
Taste 224
Olfactory 226
10.4 The Vestibular System and the Sense of Balance 228
Sensory hair cells of the vestibular organ 229
Oval and saccular cysts 230
Semicircular canal 230
10.5 Ears and Hearing 232
Outer ear 232
Middle 232
Snail 234
Spiral organ (Organ of Corti) 236
10.6 Eyes and Vision 239
Refraction 242
Lens Accommodation 243
Vision 244
10.7 Retina 245
The Effects of Light on Rod Cells 247
Electrical activity of retinal cells 248
Cone Cells and Color Vision 249
Vision and Sensitivity 251
Neural pathways from the retina 252
10.8 Neural Processing of Visual Information 254
Receptive area 254 of ganglion cells
Lateral geniculate nucleus 255
Cerebral cortex 255
Summary 256
Problem 256

CHAPTER 11
Endocrine Glands - Secretion and Function of Hormones 257
11.1 Endocrine Glands and Hormones 258
Commonalities of Neurological and Endocrine Regulation 258
Chemical Classification of Hormones 259
Prohormones and prehormones 261
Hormonal Interactions 261
Effects of Hormone Concentrations on Tissue Responses 262
11.2 Hormonal Mechanisms of Action 263
Hormone 263 that binds to nuclear receptor proteins
Hormone 266 using second messengers
11.3 Pituitary Gland 271
Pituitary hormone 271
Hypothalamic control of the posterior pituitary gland 273
Hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary gland 273
Feedback control of the anterior pituitary gland 275
Brain Function and Pituitary Secretion 276
11.4 Adrenal 276
Functions of the Adrenal Cortex 276
Functions of the Adrenal Medulla 278
Stress and the Adrenal Glands 278
11.5 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 279
Production and Action of Thyroid Hormones 280
Parathyroid gland 282
11.6 Interest and other endocrine glands 283
Islets of Langerhans 283
Pineal gland 285
Gastrointestinal tract 286
Gonads and Placenta 286
11.7 Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation 287
Examples of Paracrine and Autocrine Regulation 287
Prostaglandin 288
Summary 290
Problem 290

CHAPTER 12
Mechanisms of Muscle Contraction and Neural Control 291
12.1 Skeletal Muscle 292
Structure of Skeletal Muscle 292
Motor Endplates and Motor Units 294
12.2 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction 296
Filament gliding theory of muscle contraction 297
Regulation of Muscle Contraction 302
12.3 Contraction of Skeletal Muscles 305
Contraction, weighting, and stiffness 305
Type 307 of Muscle Contraction
Serial-elastic component 307
Length-tension relationship 308
12.4 Energy Requirements of Skeletal Muscle 309
Skeletal Muscle Metabolism 309
Slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers 311
Muscle Fatigue 312
Muscle Adaptations to Exercise Training 313
Muscle Damage and Repair 314
12.5 Neural Control of Skeletal Muscle 315
Muscle spindle 316
a and g-motor neurons 317
Coactivation of a and g-motor neurons 317
Skeletal muscle reflexes 317
Upper Motor Neuron Control of Skeletal Muscle 321
12.6 Cardiac and Smooth Muscle 321
Cardiac muscle 322
Smooth root 323
Summary 327
Problem 328

CHAPTER 13
Blood, Heart, and Circulation 329
13.1 Functions and Components of the Circulatory System 330
Functions of the Circulatory System 330
Major components of the circulatory system 330
13.2 Composition of Blood 331
Plasma 332
Blood Type 332
Hematopoiesis 335
Red Blood Cell Antigens and Blood Type Determination 337
Blood clotting 338
Dissolution of blood clots 342
13.3 Structure of the Heart 342
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation 343
Atrioventricular and semilunar valves 344
Heart sound 344
13.4 Cardiac Cycle 346
Pressure changes during the cardiac cycle 347
13.5 Electrical Activity of the Heart and the Electrocardiogram 348
Electrical activity of the heart 349
ECG 352
13.6 Blood vessels 355
Artery 355
Capillaries 357
Vein 358
13.7 Atherosclerosis and Cardiac Arrhythmias 360
Atherosclerosis 360
Arrhythmias detected by electrocardiography 363
13.8 Lymphatic System 366
Summary 368
Problem 368

CHAPTER 14
Cardiac output, blood flow, and blood pressure 369
14.1 Cardiac output 370
Heart rate regulation 370
Control of stroke volume 371
Venous return 374
14.2 Blood volume 374
Fluid exchange between capillaries and tissues 375
Regulation of blood volume by the kidneys 378
14.3 Vascular Resistance to Blood Flow 381
The Physical Laws of Blood Flow 381
Exogenous regulation of blood flow 383
Paracrine regulation of blood flow 384
Endogenous regulation of blood flow 384
14.4 Blood Flow to the Heart and Skeletal Muscles 385
Cardiac aerobic demand 385
Regulation of Coronary Blood Flow 386
Regulation of blood flow through skeletal muscle 386
Circulatory Changes During Exercise 387
14.5 Blood flow to the brain and skin 389
Cerebral Circulation 389
Skin blood flow 390
14.6 blood pressure 391
Baroreceptor reflex 392
Atrial stretch reflex 394
Blood pressure measurement 395
Pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure 397
14.7 Hypertension, shock, and congestive heart failure 397
Hypertension 397
Circulation Shock 400
Congestive heart failure 401
Summary 402
Problem 402

CHAPTER 15
Immune System 403
15.1 Defense Mechanisms 404
Innate (nonspecific) immunity 404
Acquired (specific) immunity 408
Lymphocytes and Lymphoid Organs 409
Local inflammation 410
15.2 Functions of B Lymphocytes 412
Antibody 412
Complement system 415
15.3 Functions of T Lymphocytes 416
Killer, helper, and regulatory T lymphocytes 416
Interactions between antigen-presenting cells and T lymphocytes 419
15.4 Active and Passive Immunity 422
Active Immunity and Clonal Selection Theory 423
Immune tolerance 425
Passive Immunity 425
15.5 Tumor Immunology 426
Innate lymphoid cells 427
The Effects of Aging and Stress 428
15.6 Diseases of the Immune System 428
Autoimmune 429
Immune complex disease 430
Allergy 430
Summary 434
Problem 434

CHAPTER 16
Respiratory Physiology 435
16.1 Respiratory System 436
Structure of the Respiratory System 436
Thoracic cavity 439
16.2 Physical Aspects of Ventilation 441
Intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressure 441
Physical Properties of the Lungs 441
Surface-Activated Substances and Respiratory Distress Syndrome 443
16.3 Respiratory Mechanics 444
Inhalation and exhalation 444
Pulmonary function test 446
Lung Disease 447
16.4 Gas Exchange in the Lungs 450
PO2 calculation 450
Partial pressure of blood gas 451
Significance of Blood PO2 and PCO2 Measurements 452
Pulmonary circulation and ventilation/perfusion ratio 453
Diseases caused by high partial pressure of gases 455
16.5 Breathing Control 455
Brainstem respiratory center 456
The Effect of Blood PCO2 and pH on Ventilation 458
Effect of blood PO2 on ventilation 459
The Effect of Pulmonary Receptors on Ventilation 460
16.6 Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport 461
Hemoglobin 461
Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve 463
Effects of pH and Temperature on Oxygen Transport 464
Effect of 2,3-DPG on oxygen transport 464
Genetic Defects in Hemoglobin Structure and Function 466
Muscle myoglobin 466
16.7 Carbon Dioxide Transport 467
Chloride ion migration 467
Retrochlorine ion migration 468
16.8 Acid-Base Balance of the Blood 469
Principles of Acid-Base Balance 469
Ventilation and Acid-Base Balance 471
16.9 The Effects of Exercise and High Altitude on Respiratory Function 471
Ventilation during exercise 471
Acclimatization to High Altitudes 473
Summary 476
Problem 476

CHAPTER 17
Physiology of the Kidney 477
17.1 Structure and Function of the Kidney 478
Structure of the Urinary System 478
Urination Control 480
Microscopic Structure of the Kidney 480
17.2 Glomerular Filtration 483
Glomerular ultrafiltrate 484
Regulation of Glomerular Filtration Rate 485
17.3 Reabsorption of salt and water 486
Reabsorption of Tori's customs 486
Reflux amplifier 487
Collecting Tube: Effects of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 490
17.4 Renal plasma clearance 493
Transport processes affecting kidney clearance 493
Renal Clearance of Inulin: GFR Measurement 494
Kidney clearance measurement 496
Glucose reabsorption 497
17.5 Renal Control of Electrolyte and Acid-Base Balance 498
The Role of Aldosterone in Na+/K+ Balance 499
Control of Aldosterone Secretion 500
Natriuretic peptide 502
Relationships between Na+, K+, and H+ 502
Renal Acid-Base Regulation 502
17.6 Diuretics and Kidney Function Tests 504
Use of diuretics 504
Kidney Function Tests and Kidney Disease 506
Summary 508
Problem 508

CHAPTER 18
Digestive System 509
18.1 Introduction to the Digestive System 510
Cell layers of the digestive tract 512
Regulation of the Digestive Tract 513
18.2 From mouth to stomach 513
Esophagus 514
Above 514
Pepsin and HCl secretion 515
18.3 Small intestine 518
Villi and Microvilli 518
Intestinal enzyme 519
Intestinal contractions and movements 519
18.4 Large intestine 522
Gut Microbiota 523
Absorption of fluid and electrolytes in the intestines 524
Defecation 525
18.5 Liver, gallbladder, pancreas 525
Liver Structure 525
Liver function 527
Gallbladder 531
Interest 531
18.6 Regulation of the Digestive System 534
Regulation of the above functions 534
Regulation of bowel function 536
Regulation of bile and bile secretion 538
Stimulating effects of gastrointestinal hormones 538
18.7 Digestion and Absorption of Food 538
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates 539
Protein Digestion and Absorption 539
Digestion and Absorption of Lipids 540
Summary 544
Problem 544

CHAPTER 19
Metabolic Regulation 545
19.1 Nutritional requirements 546
Metabolic rate and calorie needs 546
547 coins required
Vitamins and Minerals 549
Free Radicals and Antioxidants 551
19.2 Regulation of Energy Metabolism 552
Regulatory functions of adipose tissue 553
Fasting and Metabolic Rate Regulation 555
557 calories burned
Hormonal regulation of metabolism 558
19.3 Energy Regulation by Interest Island 559
Regulation of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion 560
Insulin and Glucagon: Absorption Status 562
Insulin and Glucagon: Postabsorption State 562
19.4 Diabetes and Hypoglycemia 564
Type I diabetes 564
Type II diabetes 565
Hypoglycemia (increase) 567
19.5 Metabolic Regulation by Adrenal Hormones, Thyroxine, and Growth Hormone 568
Adrenal hormone 568
Thyroxine 569
Growth hormone 570
19.6 Regulation of Ca2+ and PO43- Balance 572
Bone deposition and bone resorption 572
Hormonal Regulation of Bone 573
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 575
Inhibition of negative feedback on Ca2+ and PO43- balance 577
Summary 578
Problem 578

CHAPTER 20
Reproduction 579
20.1 Reproduction 580
Sex Determination 580
Development of accessory sex organs and external genitalia 584
Embryonic Sexual Abnormalities 586
20.2 Endocrine Regulation of Reproduction 586
Interactions between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads 586
The Beginning of Puberty 588
Songbangulsam 589
Human Sexual Response 589
20.3 Male Reproductive System 589
Control of gonadotropin secretion 590
Endocrine Function of the Testis 591
Spermatogenesis 592
Male accessory genital organs 595
Erection, ejaculation, and ejaculation 596
Male fertility 598
20.4 Female Reproductive System 599
Ovarian cycle 601
Ovulation 602
Pituitary-ovarian axis 603
20.5 Menstrual cycle 604
Phases of the Menstrual Cycle: Ovarian Cyclic Changes 604
Cyclic changes in the endometrium 607
The Effects of Pheromones, Stress, and Body Fat 608
Contraception 609
Menopause 609
20.6 Modification, Pregnancy, Childbirth 610
Amendment 610
Cleavage and blastula formation 612
Implantation of the blastocyst and formation of the placenta 616
Molecular Exchange Across the Placenta 618
Endocrine Function of the Placenta 619
Labor and Delivery 620
Breastfeeding 621
Summary 624
Problem 624
Glossary 625
Search 645