Introduction: Space: A New Geopolitical Battleground

Chapter 1: Humans Look Up at the Sky

God will rule the stars above.
The ancient Greeks approached mathematics, not oracles.
From the Islamic Golden Age to the Renaissance
The Earth must not rotate, because the Pope forbids it!
God steps aside and science reigns supreme
Even in the 20th century, we only know about water droplets and not about the sea.

Chapter 2: The Cold War Drove Us into Space

The first thing you need to go into space is a rocket.
The Cold War began with the rocket competition between the two countries.
Sputnik 1 gets there before the US
The United States continues to lose its title of "first"
Now all that remains is who will reach the moon first.
Ultimately, the United States left the greatest footprint on humanity.
“We must make sure that no one knows that we have been overtaken.”
A competition between systems over the moon

Chapter 3: Space is the New Real Estate of the 21st Century

The geography of the universe begins on Earth.
Low Earth Orbit: The Most Attractive Real Estate in Space
Medium orbit, which provides guidance, and high orbit, which is quite busy.
Parking lot of the universe
The moon is slightly larger than the African continent
First come, first served?
He who controls the universe controls the Earth.

Chapter 4: The Universe Is Now (Virtually) Lawless

The Artemis Accords have more holes than the moon's surface.
An outdated agreement that only space lawyers would appreciate.
Is it okay to attack private satellites?
If a murder occurs in space
Kessler syndrome
Satellites attacking satellites
It's more dangerous not to crash into Earth
A disaster coming from that distant universe

Chapter 5: China Wants to Be a Leader, Not a Winner

More interested in technological advancement than boasting about being a winner
"Excluding us? Well, then..."
Linking nationalism to space exploration
It is a well-known fact that China has outstanding space capabilities.
Land on the moon before the US?
The only country in the world with its own space station

Chapter 6: America, If We Don't Own It, Opportunity Goes to Others

It's not as desperate as it used to be, though.
Creation of the Space Force
A country that wants to become a space police officer
Return to the Moon, This Time I'm Going to Stay
Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and the Era of Space Commercialization

Chapter 7: Russia's Heyday, Both on Land and in Space

A red star that is losing its power
Russian incidents in space
Putin: Space military power is unrivaled.
It is Russia, not China, that is more desperate.
Ambitious but lacking in funds, equipment, or expertise.
The Fall of "Made in Russia"

Chapter 8: Space Expansion by Countries in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa

Europe, apart yet together
France, which seeks to avoid relying on the US, and Germany, which has not been prominent in the space industry.
Britain may be a powerhouse on earth, but it lags far behind in space.
China's efforts to overtake US GPS
Japan's non-military participation is more active than its military participation
South Korea joins the ranks of space powers, while North Korea successfully conducts a solid-fuel ICBM test flight.
India's rise as a second-tier space power
Australia relies on other countries' satellites for weather forecasts.
Israel launches satellites in the opposite direction to most countries
The United Arab Emirates has allowed Chinese companies to enter its space industry.
Iran disguises military use
Africa cannot remain an importer of space technology.

Chapter 9: 2038: The Space War Finally Breaks Out

2030: China and the United States on the brink of war
Satellites: Attractive Attack Targets
2038, the moon becomes a battlefield
Strategies to Prevent Space War

Chapter 10: The Moon, Mars, and the Human Mind

385,000 kilometers from home, we're now going to live there.
Elon Musk's 79th birthday party on Mars in 2050!
Rotating space cities, rocket-driven sails, and the human mind
In the distant future we
Well then, have a nice trip!

Conclusion: The Universe Awaits Us, Homo Sapiens
Acknowledgements
References

Space is a place that can be reached in an hour by a car traveling at 100 kilometers per hour.

NASA defines space as beginning at 80 kilometers above sea level, and the Federation Aeronautics Internationale (FAI) defines space as beginning at 100 kilometers above sea level.
So if you had a car that could go straight up at 100 kilometers per hour, you could get to space in under an hour.
That's how close the universe is to us.


Space is the "new real estate" and "new geopolitical battleground" of the 21st century.

There are parking lots in space, popular launch pads teeming with over 8,000 satellites, a moon slightly larger than Africa that is now being inhabited, Mars, a seven-month journey away with the latest spacecraft, highly radioactive zones, vast oceans, areas ripe for development, strategic corridors for military deployments, and lands rich in natural resources.
All of this attracts the attention of the great powers, who are trying to gain an advantage there by any means necessary.
Ultimately, space has become another “object of contention” and a new geopolitical battlefield.


In the Age of Space, geopolitics has become just as important in space as on land.

Space has already become central to Earth's economy, communications, military strategy, and international relations.
As space grows in importance from a military, economic, and geopolitical perspective, competition becomes fiercer.
Ultimately, space is something that humans must explore, develop, and perhaps conquer.
It is also the “latest arena” where power struggles take place between countries.
The world is busy now and will become even busier in the future.
From physical territory and resources to satellites, weapons, and strategic locations, geopolitics is now as important in space as it is on land.
We have now entered the era of the space race.
Who wins this battle will bring about a huge change in our lives on the surface of the earth below.

Competition, alliances, and conflicts on Earth are expanding into space.

The notion that space is a "global commons" is fading. The slogan "space is a battlefield" may sound a bit aggressive, but it's a stark truth.
Space is already "militarized," and the great powers are quickly moving into space to "maintain their superiority on earth," while the rest of the world is rushing to seize the opportunity.
What happens in space is an extension of what happens on Earth.
Therefore, the geopolitics of space cannot be unaffected by the geopolitics of Earth.
Now, wars between nations begin in space, not on land.
However, humanity has not yet established a set of norms to regulate this competition.
Without agreed-upon rules to regulate human activity in space, conflict would escalate to a staggering degree.

Low Earth orbit, a strategically important space hub and gateway, is home to the largest number of satellites.

Low Earth orbit, which is about 160 to 2,000 kilometers above the Earth, is an attractive real estate site because it is where most artificial satellites are located.
Because it is close to the Earth's surface, the image quality is clear and it is most often used for satellite imagery.
The resolution of the cameras onboard modern, cutting-edge military satellites is so high that they can even tell what brand of sunglasses Jason Bourne is wearing.
Low Earth orbit can be likened to the Suez Canal or Strait of Hormuz on Earth.
To venture into the vast ocean of space, we must have access to the communications networks provided by satellites in low orbit, while at the same time traveling through low orbit.


Medium orbit, where GPS satellites are located; high orbit, where communication and surveillance satellites are located.

When it reaches about 2,000 kilometers above the ground, it enters medium orbit, which continues to about 35,786 kilometers above the ground.
Many of the satellites located here provide services to Earth such as positioning and navigation.
In contrast, a single satellite in a high-Earth orbit, exceeding 35,786 kilometers, can observe up to 42 percent of the Earth's surface.
Military communications satellites and wiretapping satellites are stationed here, along with TV satellites, radio satellites, and wide-area weather satellites.
Right here, the United States operates six state-of-the-art ultra-high frequency satellites for both military and civilian commercial use.

The Moon, slightly larger than the African continent but containing 1 million tons of helium-3

The moon is 385,000 kilometers from our home planet, Earth, and it takes about three days for a manned spacecraft to reach it.
The challenge to reach the moon is being undertaken for various reasons, including national honor, commercial and strategic purposes.
The moon is an amazing place with mountains, ridges, valleys, plains, and vast caves, providing sources of water, oxygen, and energy, as well as natural resources including rare earth elements.
But more than anything, there is a lot of helium-3 accumulated on the lunar surface, and helium-3 can be used as fuel to cause nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion is practically the holy grail of energy production because it produces more energy than nuclear fission while producing far less radiation.
On Earth, helium-3 accounts for only 0.0001 percent of all helium, but on the moon, a whopping 1 million tons exist.
According to scientists, if we can harness helium-3, “we could solve humanity’s energy problems for about 10,000 years.”


Ultimately, whoever rules the universe also rules the politics and economy of Earth!

In this way, there are various strategic locations in space that terrestrial nations would covet.
If a space superpower could control the path out of the atmosphere, it could block other nations from spaceflight.
Moreover, if that country were to control the moon, it would not only monopolize the moon's wealth but also enjoy the same advantages enjoyed by past maritime powers.
Those who are first to land will have the first chance to access the moon's potential wealth and bring some of it back to Earth.
It also becomes the only nation that can travel further into the solar system using the moon as a base.
Those who pioneer the path first can set the conditions that others must follow.
And if that country controls even low-orbit, it can dominate the satellite belt and control the world based on that.
Ultimately, whoever rules the universe will also rule the Earth.

Professor Everett Dolman, a world-renowned theorist of space politics and author of Astropolitics, left one of the most famous maxims in this regard:


“He who rules low orbit commands the space near Earth.

He who rules the space around Earth rules Terra (Earth).

“Whoever rules Terra determines the fate of humanity.”

The space industry is expected to generate 648 trillion won in revenue in 2022, and by 2050, there will be 50,000 satellites in space.

The space industry generated $450 billion in revenue in 2022, and is projected to generate over $1 trillion by 2040, according to Morgan Stanley. The GPS satellite navigation system has provided a $1.4 trillion boost to the U.S. economy, with most of that growth occurring over the past decade.
Also, more than 80 countries have launched satellites, and it is expected that at least 50,000 satellites will be in orbit by 2050. China plans to launch at least 1,000 satellites in the next 10 years, and by 2028, the United States is expected to have 100 early warning satellites to act as a defense against hypersonic missiles.
If there is a problem with the satellite, a major industrial country like the UK will suffer a loss of about 2 trillion won per day.
This dependence on space makes us perceive space as an important “geographical place.”

The First Space War takes place amidst tensions in the Asia-Pacific region.

For at least the next decade, wars in space will largely be linked to wars on Earth.
In the short term, experts predict that a space war is most likely to stem from tensions in the Asia-Pacific region, including China, Taiwan, India, Japan, and the United States.
Chapter 9 of this book presents a hypothetical space war scenario related to this.

Each country is engaged in a fierce battle over the geography of space.

To properly respond to the coming “Space Age,” we must understand space in its historical, political, military, and economic context.
Therefore, this book examines the space capabilities of 15 major countries along these lines.


China wants to become a technological leader rather than boasting as a winner in the space race.
ㆍRussia's heyday is already over, both on land and in space.
The United States wants to be a space policeman, but it also has to compete with China for hegemony in space.
ㆍBritain may be a military power on land, but it lags far behind in space.
France, which does not want to rely on the US nuclear umbrella
The United Arab Emirates, an emerging space power
Australia relies on other countries' satellites for weather forecasts.
ㆍIndia became the first country in human history to land on the moon's south pole
ㆍKorea has joined the ranks of space nations, but still has limitations.
North Korea successfully test-flights solid-fuel ICBMs
Iran seeks to prevent its adversaries from gaining superiority in space.
Israel launches satellites in the opposite direction to most countries
ㆍAfrica, a large continent without a single launch facility

China wants to be a technological leader rather than a winner.

China, the fastest-growing of the Big Three space powers, has outstanding space-related capabilities.
Xi Jinping stressed that “the dream of space is part of the dream of making China stronger.”
China became the fifth country to place a satellite in orbit in 1970, the third to send humans into space in 2003, and the first to land on the far side of the moon in 2019.
It is also the only country in the world that currently has its own space station (Tiangong).
As Western rockets grow larger and fly farther, Beijing becomes more alarmed that they could be weaponized and used against China.
Therefore, China's space program is more "militarized" than that of any other country.
Accordingly, we are attempting to modernize through a “techno-nationalist” approach.
Moreover, China has the financial resources, infrastructure, and technological prowess to form a two-tier power in space with the United States.

If we don't own the moon, the opportunity will go to someone else.

The United States won the space race with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
But since then, America's interest in space has waned.
Then, in the 21st century, we want to return to the moon again.
The biggest difference from the Cold War is that this time we are going to the moon to “stay.”
The U.S. Space Shuttle had a fatal accident rate of "one in every 67 flights." NASA claimed it could launch the shuttle once a month, but in reality, launching more than once every three months was difficult and costly.
While many countries recognize spaceflight as a national issue, Americans believe that private industry should take the lead and that they are better prepared for spaceflight.
Certainly, American companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin are ahead of the curve, and through partnerships with NASA, they are reducing spaceflight costs and conducting various space developments.
The United States believes China poses a “serious threat” to its space supremacy.
As on Earth, the United States wants to play the role of policeman in space, but there too it faces a competition for hegemony with China.
In military terms, the United States is currently clearly ahead of China.
However, the United States is feeling a sense of crisis, saying, “China could overtake the United States by 2030.”


Russia's heyday is over, both on land and in space.

Russia's space capabilities, once so formidable that they sent the first humans into space and competed with the United States in a space race during the Cold War, are showing signs of decline.
Even though the space industry is expanding at a faster rate than it has in decades, Russia remains left out of most partnerships, investments, and expertise.
It was also losing market share in competition such as rocket engine sales, satellite launch services, and transporting astronauts to the International Space Station.
This is also a self-inflicted problem.
Russia has ambitions, but it lacks the funding, equipment, and expertise needed to compete with the U.S. and Chinese space programs.
Even in its relationship with China, Russia is more desperate.

Space advancements by countries in Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa

While China, the United States, and Russia are the three major space powers, many other countries are also striving to increase their presence.
New technologies have made it easier for more and more countries, including developing countries, to access opportunities.
More than 80 countries have launched satellites, with the help of 11 countries that have (or had) the capability to launch rockets.
However, due to cost and infrastructure issues, most countries cannot launch rockets independently.
Britain still relies on the United States for military satellite imagery, and in return the National Security Agency uses British facilities.
Britain may be one of Europe's military powers alongside France, but when it comes to space, it lags far behind Japan, France, the United Arab Emirates, and others.
Australia has no means of protecting its few satellites from potential Chinese attack.
Their territory may be vast, but their space capabilities are meager.
Because they do not have their own satellite systems, they rely on data from satellites provided by Japan, China, the European Space Agency, the United States, and others for weather forecasts and monitoring of natural disasters ranging from volcanic activity to forest fires.


<Korea> joined the ranks of space nations by sending a lunar probe (Danuri) in 2022 using its outstanding technological prowess, but the fact that the spacecraft was sent into space aboard a SpaceX rocket launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in the United States exposed Korea's limitations.
North Korea announced that it had successfully conducted its first test flight of a solid-fuel ICBM in 2023.
Solid-fuel ICBMs are more maneuverable than missiles that use liquid propellants because they use fuel already mounted on the fuselage.
It is also easier to conceal and can be prepared for launch in just minutes.
This suggests that North Korea could directly strike other countries' satellites with missiles.
India became the first country to land on the lunar south pole in 2023.
The driving force behind India's space program stems from its desire not to lag behind its archrival, China, in military power.
They know that China's expertise in space military operations will benefit Pakistan, China's ally and India's arch-enemy.
The United Arab Emirates, a rising space power in the Middle East, has entered space development as part of a broader economic diversification effort to shift away from its reliance on oil and gas.
When the probe entered Mars' orbit in 2021, it became the fifth country in history to reach the Red Planet, following the United States, the Soviet Union, the European Space Agency, and India.
But allowing Chinese companies to enter its space industry is causing anxiety among Western allies.


The universe is now a rough and rugged place, virtually a lawless zone.

Space is humanity's last frontier and is currently a virtual lawless zone.
The notion that space is a “global commons” is now fading.
The situation is very precarious right now.
We need to establish new rules and apply them to the universe.
There are 8 billion reasons why this should be done.
Every human being on Earth should be concerned with the rule-based order of the universe and global cooperation in the universe.
Without such interest, we would end up fighting fiercely over the geography of the universe, just as we did over the geography of the Earth.