13 Types of Bioenergetics and Biochemical Reactions 465
13.1 Bioenergetics and Thermodynamics 466
13.2 Chemical Logic and Common Biochemical Reactions 472
13.3 Phosphate Transfer and ATP 479
13.4 Biological Redox Reactions 488
13.5 Regulation of Metabolic Pathways 496

14 Glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and pentose phosphate pathways 510
14.1 Glycolysis 511
14.2 Supplementary Metabolic Pathways in the Glycolytic Process 521
14.3 The Fate of Pyruvate 525
14.4 Gluconeogenesis 533
14.5 Coordinated Integrated Regulation of Glycolysis and Grapevine Progeny 539
14.6 Glucose Oxidation and the Phosphate Pentose Pathway 546

15 Animal Party Ambassadors 556
15.1 Party Structure and Functions 556
15.2 Decomposition and Synthesis of Party Members 558
15.3 Integrated Control of Party Member Decomposition and Synthesis 565

16 Citric Acid Cycle 574
16.1 Production of acetyl-CoA (active acetate) 575
16.2 Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle 578
16.3 The Center of Intermediate Dialogue 590
16.4 Regulation of the Citric Acid Cycle 593

17. Catabolism of fatty acids 601
17.1 Digestion, Mobilization, and Transport of Fats 602
17.2 Oxidation of fatty acids 606
17.3 Ketone bodies 619

18 Amino Acid Oxidation and Urea Production 625
18.1 Metabolic Fate of Amino Acids 626
18.2 Nitrogen Excretion and the Urea Cycle 633
18.3 Amino Acid Degradation Pathway 639

19 Oxidative phosphorylation 659
19.1 Electron transfer reactions in mitochondria 660
19.2 ATP synthesis 674
19.3 Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation 686
19.4 The Role of Mitochondria in Thermogenesis, Steroid Synthesis, and Apoptosis 689
19.5 Mitochondrial Genes: Their Origin and the Effects of Mutation 691

20 Photosynthesis and carbohydrate synthesis in plants 700
20.1 Light Absorption 701
20.2 Photochemical Reaction Center 707
20.3 Evolution of the Universal Mechanism of ATP Synthesis 716
20.4 Carbon-assimilation reactions 719
20.5 Photorespiration and the C4 and CAM Pathways 727
20.6 Biosynthesis of Starch, Sucrose, and Cellulose 732

21 Biosynthesis of Lipids 744
21.1 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids and Eicosanoids 744
21.2 Biosynthesis of triacylglycerols 760
21.3 Biosynthesis of Membrane Phospholipids 764
21.4 Biosynthesis of Cholesterol, Steroids, and Isoprenoids 771

22 Biosynthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, and related substances 794
22.1 Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism 795
22.2 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids 805
22.3 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids 817
22.4 Biosynthesis and Degradation of Nucleotides 823

23 Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Mammalian Metabolism 841
23.1 Hormones: Different Structures for Different Functions 842
23.2 Tissue-Specific Metabolism 847
23.3 Hormonal Regulation of Fuel Metabolism 859
23.4 Obesity and Weight Control 867
23.5 Diabetes 875

24 genes and chromosomes 885
24.1 Components of Chromosomes 885
24.2 DNA Superhelical Structure 891
24.3 Structure of Chromosomes 898

25 DNA Metabolism 914
25.1 DNA Replication 915
25.2 DNA Repair 930
25.3 DNA recombination 940

26 RNA metabolism 960
26.1 DNA-dependent RNA synthesis 96126.2 RNA processing 972
26.3 RNA-Dependent Synthesis of RNA and DNA 988
26.4 RNA Enzymes and the RNA World Hypothesis 995

27 Protein Metabolism 1005
27.1 Genetic Code 1006
27.2 Protein Synthesis 1015
27.3 Protein Targeting and Degradation 1041

28 Regulation of Gene Expression 1054
28.1 Proteins and RNA in Gene Regulation 1055
28.2 Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria 1065
28.3 Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes 1075