The "Piercing Questions" series
In the AI ​​era, learning through questions and connections

We've entered an era where generative AI allows us to easily obtain answers with just a few clicks. The information provided by AI is becoming increasingly accurate and logical, based on human-researched data. AI utilization is rapidly expanding, with ChatGPT users surpassing 400 million worldwide (announced by OpenAI COO Brad Lightcap in February 2025).
In terms of the speed of information production, humans cannot keep up with AI. How should we study in this age of AI-induced information deluge? The "Penetrating Questions" series has designed a new form of humanities book to address this challenge, focusing on two areas:


First, let's study how to develop the 'power of questioning.'
The ability to gain insight into knowledge is developed through 'questions', not 'answers'.
"If you define the problem well, you've already found the answer." (Einstein) The ability to define a problem comes from well-designed questions. Prompt engineering, one of the core competencies of the AI ​​era, is a testament to this.


Second, let us study to ‘connect’ the past and present, and the present and future, and to ‘respond on our own.’
“History is an unending dialogue between the past and the present.” (E.
H. Ka) The ability to view the present and future through the past is possible through complex and creative thinking. As we enter the AGI era and human dependence on AI accelerates, connecting thinking is the uniquely human way of learning.
The "Piercing Questions" series sheds new light on issues through key questions carefully selected by leading experts in the field, providing insights that accurately assess the present and predict the future.
In this spirit, we present 『25 Questions that Penetrate Chinese History』 as the first book in the series.

Penetrating Questions 001 『25 Questions Penetrating Chinese History』
A perspective that challenges conventional wisdom and gives a fresh perspective on history.

Does knowing a lot about history mean knowing history well? How should we study history? "Questions" play a crucial role in the age-old discipline of history.
Because it is an important starting point for historians to speak to the countless silent historical materials.
There is no material that provides answers without asking questions.
Even with the same material, new interpretations and meanings can be found depending on the question asked.
The seven authors, scholars of Chinese history, pondered for a long time over the proposition of 'a question that penetrates Chinese history.'
We have compiled the latest research findings on Chinese history over a period of over two years and carefully selected a total of 25 questions based on discussions on what kind of knowledge of Chinese history Koreans need.


Each chapter (25 chapters) and section (144 sections) of 『25 Questions Penetrating Chinese History』 is presented as a question that penetrates the core of each topic, allowing readers to examine the various aspects of the "question" through the perspective of a historian and embody that perspective.
The questions were carefully selected from the following three perspectives:
1) Questions essential to understanding China today, 2) Questions that overturn and correct existing perspectives, and 3) Questions that interpret key concepts that have not received much attention.
The topic was broadly summarized into the following three keywords.
1) Empire, 2) Trade, 3) Culture.
This book weaves together three perspectives and three themes to provide a broad overview of China's dynamic and diverse landscape from ancient to modern times, at the forefront of Chinese historical research.

The seven-author team reviewed numerous introductory books published so far and established several principles to create a new book that would stand out from existing introductory books on Chinese history.
First, to create an introductory book whose questions are more interesting and meaningful than their answers; second, to develop a narrative style that will appeal to readers in their 20s in the 2020s, that is, the "new generation" born in Korea around 2000; third, to reflect the latest research on Chinese history conducted in Korea up to the 2020s when the book is published; and fourth, to reexamine Chinese history from the perspective of globalization.
In particular, the perspective of globalization is a pressing challenge for future generations living in the 21st century, and it also serves as an answer to the question, "What contribution has China made to global civilization and to the creation of today's humanity?"
Of course, globalization here is not understood as a phenomenon that began around the 15th century from a Eurocentric perspective, but as a process of expansion of mutual exchange that has been taking place since the beginning of history.
From the emergence of the Jinhan Empire, efforts have been made to understand 'China' not as a fixed entity, but as a fluid nation, empire, and civilization that was created and changed through constant interaction and conflict with the outside world.

The authors, who reviewed the answers to the twenty-five questions collected in this way, were able to recall the repetition and antagonism of 'openness and closure' as a characteristic and personality that runs through Chinese history.
‘Openness’ and ‘closedness’ are contradictory, but they maintain a balance by pushing and pulling each other without one completely overwhelming the other.
Of course, the result of this compromise and balance is a different form from that of the Korean Peninsula or the Japanese archipelago, so it can be called the 'imperial culture' of China.


For example, the content corresponding to 'openness' includes exchanges with the Western Regions through the Silk Road, the expansion of women's (including emperors') political participation due to the influx of nomadic culture, free maritime trade expanding from the Song Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty's religious policy that equally respected foreign religions, the Grand Canal that functioned as an icon of hyperconnectivity, and diplomatic negotiations with the United States, the 'beautiful country' in the late Qing Dynasty.
On the other hand, the Great Wall, a kind of 'border' built by Qin Shi Huang, the reconstruction of the Great Wall that was connected on a large scale during the Ming Dynasty, the division of local administrative districts to suppress division, the destruction and concealment of records of Zheng He's maritime expeditions, the hierarchical and self-sufficient foreign policy of the Qing Emperor Qianlong, and China's one-party ruling structure can be classified as contents related to 'closure.'

What is interesting is that while 'closure' increases at times of strengthened unification, 'openness' actually increases at times of division.
By reading this book, you will discover that the 'imperial culture' accumulated through repeated 'opening and closing' continued into the People's Republic of China, which was established in 1949.
To this end, the latter half of the book includes a mention of the deepening US-China hegemony competition and conflict since President Xi Jinping came to power.
Understanding the long-standing "culture of empire" also allows for a historical interpretation of modern China's one-party rule system, minority policies, and the imposition of hierarchical order on neighboring countries.
--- From "Cho Young-heon, Preface - Studying History Through Questioning in the AI ​​Era"

In 221 BC, 26 years after King Ying Zheng began ruling the state of Qin, the state of Qin destroyed six other states one after another and unified China.
Although most of King Yeongjeong's actions during his youth after ascending to the throne were influenced by Lü Buwei, a powerful figure behind the scenes who acted as his guardian, his victories over the six countries and his diplomatic skills after he turned thirty can be evaluated as the result of the leadership and efforts of Yeongjeong himself.
In 221 BC, Ying Zheng, who became the sole monarch ruling the world, fully demonstrated his abilities by seizing the special opportunity provided by the kingmaker Lü Buwei, based on the historical and cultural heritage he had inherited, and as a result, he was able to make a name for himself as an 'outlier' in thousands of years of Chinese history.
--- From "Chapter 1: Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of China, a Great Tyrant or a Hero of Chinese Unification?"

How did Wu Zetian ascend to the throne, given that the male-dominated patriarchal system had been the foundation of Chinese society since the Zhou Dynasty? Despite the frequent emergence of powerful women in Chinese history, what was the background that allowed only Wu Zetian to ascend to the throne? Emperor Wu Zetian reigned for only 15 years, but when counting the period during which she was appointed empress and directly involved in politics, her political influence lasted over 50 years.
Was the long-term reign of Empress Wu Zetian truly different from that of male emperors? How can we distinguish between outward appearances and internal essence? What does it mean to change the existing order and create a new situation, and how should we overcome the limitations that may arise? Could the conventional perceptions we take for granted have perhaps been born of excessive indifference?
--- From "Chapter 4: How should we view Wu Zetian, the only female emperor?"

Although literati officials dominated key central and local government posts and further emphasized the value of 'literature,' as mentioned earlier, the Song court's most pressing concerns were always national defense issues.
Also, the emperor, who was the highest decision maker, although he had been educated as a man of letters from a young age, placed greater weight on 'mu', which was directly related to the survival of the nation, when making policy decisions.
Rather, in an atmosphere of the court where the value of 'nothingness' was overly valued, civil servants who had entered public office through the civil service examination strongly promoted a movement to respect the value of 'mun' not only in the court but also throughout the country.
--- From “Chapter 9: Did Civilizationism Make the Song Dynasty Weak?”

Today, many scholars refer to the prosperity of maritime traffic and trade during that era as Pax Mongolica, or "Mongolian Peace."
It is very interesting that Mongolia, a nomadic people from the steppe with no access to the sea, promoted maritime trade in the most dazzling way in human history.
How should we understand this? To truly understand the prosperity of Yuan Dynasty maritime trade, we must examine the reality from various perspectives.
This provides important clues to uncovering the nomadic nature of the original text and understanding its historical impact on later world history.
--- From Chapter 14, “Why did the nomadic Mongols promote maritime trade?”

It may be difficult to imagine a "what if" in history, but it would be difficult for anyone to easily say what the flow of world history surrounding maritime power would have been like if the records related to purification had not been burned.
However, the maritime records related to purification were burned, and Ming no longer actively sought to advance into the maritime world.
Joseon, which had its legitimacy recognized under the umbrella of the Ming Dynasty, a large tributary state and suzerain state, was also unable to take the 'irregular' step of breaking away from the Ming Dynasty's investiture-tribute order and maritime concept.
The burning of records related to the Ming Dynasty's purification of the sea was a very important variable in understanding the history of our country, which had lost its active attitude and drive toward the sea that had continued until the Goryeo Dynasty.
--- From "Chapter 15: Why Did the Ming Burn the Records of Zheng He's Expeditions?"

The sharp decline in population during the crisis, the relatively smooth migration, the transition from a war-torn nation to a welfare state, and the will of leaders to actively address livelihood issues by learning from previous crises have all proven effective in an even more challenging climate.
Even in times of extreme weather, human coping abilities have improved through learning from the past and through extra-social cooperation that is not readily apparent in times of peace.
Although the severity of the climate crisis is even more pronounced today than in the 17th century, the possibility of following the Qing path rather than the Ming path remains, provided we are armed with astute leadership and a transcendent sense of community.
--- From "Chapter 18: What influence did the Little Ice Age of the 17th century have on the transition between the Ming and Qing Dynasties?"

This is not simply a case of the past.
We cannot simply conclude that McCartney's approach is right and his teaching style is wrong.
Dichotomous thinking puts us at risk.
This complex issue offers important implications amid the accelerating US-China hegemony competition.
Will we pursue short-term gains while maintaining existing international norms and order, or will we participate in the formation of a new order in a changing environment?
The rivalry between the United States and China goes beyond a simple power struggle; it raises fundamental questions about how to reshape the norms and institutions of international relations.
In this way, the dilemmas and outcomes that McCartney and Teaching faced in the past provide a window into understanding the realities of international politics we face today.
--- From "Chapter 20: Did British Envoy Macartney Really Kneel to the Qianlong Emperor?"

In this way, China can be considered a one-party state, in that one party continues to hold power, the party is closely connected to the state apparatus, yet has superiority over it and exerts influence over a wide range of areas beyond the state apparatus.
The Chinese system, in which a single political party and the state are integrated, is called the party-state system.
It is easy to think that the party-state system in China began in 1949, when the People's Republic of China was founded, but that is not the case.
The Chinese Nationalist Party, another major player in 20th-century Chinese political history alongside the Chinese Communist Party, also maintained a similar system for a long time, and the Chinese Communist Party had been building this party-state system since before 1949.
Therefore, the party-state system can be said to be a key issue for understanding Chinese political history since the 20th century.

--- From Chapter 24, “Why Did China Become a One-Party State?”